SUBJECTS : Human Anatomy & Physiology

  • Scope of Anatomy and Physiology:
    1. Anatomy is the study of structure and physiology is the study of functions of body parts.
    2. This subject is designed to impart fundamental knowledge of the structure and functions of the various systems of the human body.
    3. This subject helps to understand homeostatic mechanisms.
    4. This subject provides the basic knowledge required to understand the various disciplines in pharmacy.
    5. The knowledge of anatomy and physiology is useful for understanding pathology of disease and pathological changes.

Defination : Mitochondria are small intracellular organelles and are also known as power house of cell or store house of energy. 

It is bound by inner folded and outer smooth-surfaced membrane. Inner membrane has many cristae and is covered with F1 particles

Functions : 

(i) It is the main site of synthesis and storage of ATP. (ii) It is the site for citric acid cycle, b-oxidation and urea cycle, ETS, etc.

(ii) It is the site for citric acid cycle, b-oxidation and urea cycle, ETS, etc.

(iii) It contains special DNA and is self-replicative.

(iv) It performs the main function of conversion and transfer of cellular energy

Physiology of Mitochondria :

When nutrients and oxygen come in contact with oxidative enzymes present in the mitochondria, they combine to form CO2 , water and liberated energy is utilised to synthesize ATP. The ATP then diffuses throughout the cells and releases its stored energy for performing cellular functions.

 

Tissue

The group of cells having similar physical characters and performing same specialized function, is known as tissue.

Fundamental/Basic Principle/Tissues of the Human Body or Classification/Types of Tissues

 

Epithelial Tissues

       These types of tissues give covering to the body organs and various cavities including mainly digestive passages and respiratory system.

Properties of Epithelial Tissue :

  1. It consists of large closely packed cells with extracellular material between adjacent cells.
  2.  Cells are arranged in continuous sheet in either single or multiple layers.
  3. Epithelial cells have free surface exposed to body cavity and basal surface attached to the basement membrane.
  4. Epithelial cells have a nerve supply.
  5. They have high regeneration capacity.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue :

  1. It covers and protects underlying tissues against injury.
  2. It helps in secretion of special chemical substances.
  3. It also helps in absorption and distribution of different substances and drugs.
  4. Outside the body, epithelial tissue forms skin and inside the body it forms membrane and gland

Muscular Tissue :       

Muscular tissues contain muscle fibres which generate force of contraction.

  • Muscular tissues contain muscle fibres which generate force of contraction

 

WBCs or leukocytes :

The WBCs are colourless cells having, irregular-shaped large nucleus. The normal count of leukocytes is 6000 to 10,000/mm3 of blood.

 

Granuloytes :

They constitute about 75%. These contain granules in the cytoplasm, hence called granulocytes.

  1. Neutrophils: The granules of these cells are stained by neutral dye. The nucleus is multi-lobed.
    1. Function: They ingest the microbes and destroy it by phagocytosis.
  2. Basophils: The granules of these cells are stained by basic dye. The nucleus is usually oval or slightly kidney-shaped.
    1. Function: They are responsible for destruction of products of antigen–antibody reactions.
  3. Eosinophils: The granules of these cells are stained by red acidic dye called eosin. The nucleus is bilobed.
    1. Function: Phagocytosis.

Agranulocytes :

These are mononuclear cells and they do not show presence of granules in their cytoplasm.

  1. Monocytes: These are large cells with large nucleus. The nucleus is convoluted kidney-shaped.
    1. Function: They give phagocytic action.
  2. Lymphocytes: These are produced in the lymph glands hence called lymphocytes.
    1. Small lymphocytes: The thin rim is present around nucleus and is stained by basic stains.
    2. Large lymphocytes: The nucleus is oval, rounded or kidney-shaped and is stained by basic stains.
      1. Function: They are responsible for the development of immunity against foreign substances such as microorganisms.

Mention the functions of leukocytes/WBCs.

  • Functions of WBCs/Leukocytes
    1. WBCs help in the process of phagocytosis.
    2. WBCs help in the formation of fibroblasts to repair the areas of inflammation.
    3. WBCs give secretion of heparin which helps to prevent intravascular clotting (thrombosis).
    4. WBCs prevent allergic reactions by antihistaminic action.
    5. Lymphocytes play an important role in the production of antibodies.

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